The New Testament Documents

The New Testament Documents by F. F. Bruce is a classic overview of the historical reliability of the New Testament. Dr. Bruce was a prominent professor of Biblical Criticism and Exegesis and the University of Manchester in the 20th century. He published many academic and popular works and is widely recognized as an expert in New Testament history, textual sources of the Bible, and the life of the apostle Paul.

In this book, Dr. Bruce presents evidence for the historical reliability of the New Testament from a variety of perspectives. This is an important topic because Christianity is much more than a philosophy or a code of ethics. Christianity is good news.

And this good news is intimately bound up with the historical order, for it tells how for the world's redemption God entered into history, the eternal came into time, the kingdom of heaven invaded the realm of earth, in the great events of the incarnation, crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus the Christ.

Since the New Testament deals with supernatural events and universal claims, people naturally demand more evidence of its reliability than for other ancient documents. Fortunately there is ample evidence that the modern New Testament documents are extremely close to the originals written in the 1st century.

There are in existence over 5,000 Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in whole of in part. The best and most important of these go back to somewhere about AD 350, the two most important being the Codex Vaticanus, the chief treasure of the Vatican Library in Rome, and the well-known Codex Sinaiticus....

In addition, to the two excellent [manuscripts] of the fourth century mentioned above, which are the earliest of some thousands known to us, considerable fragments remain of papyrus copies of books of the New Testament dated from 100 to 200 years earlier still.

John Rylands Fragment, John 18:31-33 (about AD 130)

Codex Vaticanus (about AD 350)

In addition to all of these thousands of early copies and fragments, the early Church fathers were writers themselves. These documents, which were written from AD 90 to 160, contain quotations and allusions to passages from most of the books of the New Testament.

Further, there is much evidence from academic research in Textual Criticism.

This is a most important and fascinating branch of study, its object being to determine as exactly as possible from the available evidence the original words of the the documents in question.... Fortunately, if the great number of [manuscripts] increases the number of scribal errors, it increases proportionally the means of correcting such errors, so that the margin of doubt left in the process of recovering the exact original wording is not so large as might be feared; it is in truth remarkably small. The variant readings about which any doubt remains among textual critics of the New Testament affect no material question of historic fact or Christian faith and practice.

So while it is true that copy errors were introduced over time, modern scholars are able to sort the manuscripts out into sort of a family tree, with the earliest manuscripts near the trunk and the later copies out in the branches. Earlier mistakes will continue to be reproduced in later copies down a particular branch, but will not occur in other branches of the tree. By comparing variants of passages in the different branches, the correct original version can be found. And since there are many branches in the tree, the correct version can be located with a high level of confidence.

In other chapters of this fine book, Dr. Bruce describes many other evidences for the reliability of the New Testament. Some of these are:

• The four Gospels are consistent in portraying Jesus as the Messiah and the Son of God.
• All of the New Testament authors were eyewitnesses or closely related to eyewitnesses of the events.
• Consistent testimony of (a) the empty tomb (b) the post-resurrection appearance of Jesus to groups of disciples and (c) the inability of the Jewish authorities to disprove the resurrection of Jesus.
• The many accurate historical details in the Gospel of Luke and book of Acts.
• Rabbinic writings which, though hostile, give a similar portrayal of the life of Christ.
• Records from early Gentile historians which verify the reality of Christ's life and death.
  

Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.
ISBN: 0802822193

The Abolition of Man

The Abolition of Man, by C. S. Lewis is a difficult book. It is a relatively short work, consisting of three chapters and a brief appendix. However C. S. Lewis was a man of great learning and deep insight, and therefore he covers a lot of ground rapidly. And while Lewis apparently intended this book for a learned audience, the clarity of his writing makes the main points accessible to most readers. So while reading this book can be a serious undertaking, it is also very rewarding.

Men Without Chests

Prof. Lewis begins with a critical review of a high school literature textbook in use at the time. The authors of the textbook present various examples of contemporary writing and point out a variety of shortcomings. Lewis notes that the textbook authors mainly debunk the sentiment contained within their examples. In addition, the textbook lacks any literary examples expressing proper sentiment for the various situations.

While the textbook contains poor literary criticism, Prof. Lewis indicates that its principle fault is wretched philosophy. This philosophy is hidden between the lines and leaves the unsuspecting student with a vague sense that all sentiment (for example, patriotism) should be debunked, or be "seen through" so as to reveal the selfish or self-referential motives of the author.

The very power of Gaius and Titius depends on the fact that they are dealing with a boy: a boy who thinks he is 'doing' his 'English prep' and has no notion that ethics, theology and politics are all at stake. It is not a theory they put into his mind, but an assumption, which ten years hence, its origin forgotten and its presence unconscious, will condition him to take one side in a controversy which he has never recognized as a controversy at all.

Further, Prof. Lewis contends that:

The task of the modern educator is not to cut down jungles but to irrigate deserts. The right defense against false sentiments is to inculcate just sentiments.

That is, modern students are not overly sentimental, but rather are almost entirely lacking in just sentiment. But where are these just sentiments to come from?

Until quite modern times all teachers and even all men believed the universe to be such that certain emotional reactions on our part could be either congruous or incongruous to it -- believed in fact, that objects did not merely receive, but could merit, out approval, our reverence, or out contempt.

Prof. Lewis then develops this idea of merit using his broad knowledge of history and philosophy. He describes a set of commonly recognized principles which have withstood the test of time and therefore merit our acceptance as well. For convenience, he calls these principles 'the Tao'. These principles are well-known to many cultures and

... what is common to them all is something we cannot neglect. It is the doctrine of objective value, the belief that certain attitudes are really true, and others are really false, to the kind of thing that universe is and the kind of things we are.

The modern inclination to discard these principles results in "men without chests". The 'chest' representing those sentiments which connects a persons thoughts to his actions. This disconnect between thoughts and actions has tragic consequences in culture.

[W]e continue to clamor for those qualities we are rendering impossible.... In a sort of ghastly simplicity we remove the organ and demand the function. We make men without chests and expect of them virtue and enterprise. We laugh at honour and are shocked to find traitors in our midst. We castrate and bid the geldings be fruitful.

The Way

The second chapter develops the concept of the Tao more fully.

Prof. Lewis begins by pointing out that no matter how subjective "Gaius and Titius" are about traditional values, they must hold to some core values, otherwise their textbook would be pointless. Among the items they criticize as meaningless are bravery, gentlemanly behavior, patriotism and love of country. On the other hand, the items that they approve of are peacefulness, democracy, cleanliness, comfort and security. They take for granted that these latter concepts are immune to the same process of subjective criticism that they have applied to other traditional values.

When pressed for a justification for the approved ideas, the innovator will fall back on a reasoned defence. These ideas are defended as reasonable to the individual or the community. However, Prof. Lewis points out that this sort of reasoning is impossible without ultimately resorting to principles from the Tao, the thing which they initially set out to discard.

With the reasoned defense failing, the innovator will fall back to the 'instinct' defense. But Prof. Lewis points out that instinct isn't something which is really understood beyond some basic impulse. If this basic impulse is irresistible, then why do we need to defend it at all? And even if it is irresistible, on what basis do we know that we should obey it?

The truth finally becomes apparent that neither in any operation with factual propositions nor in any appeal to instinct can the Innovator find the basis for a system of values. None of the principles that he requires are to be found there: but they are all to be found somewhere else.... All of the practical principles behind the Innovator's case for posterity, or society, or the species, are there from time immemorial in the Tao.

Of the traditional morality in the Tao, he says:

You cannot reach them as conclusions: they are premisses.

And further:

This thing which I have for convenience called the Tao, and which others may call Natural Law of Traditional Morality or the First Principles of Practical Reason or the First Platitudes, is not one among a series of possible systems of value. It is the sole source of all value judgements. If it is rejected, all value is rejected. If any value is retained, it is retained. The effort to refute it and raise a new system of value in its place is self-contradictory. There never has been, and never will be, a radically new judgement of value in the history of the world.

The Abolition of Man

In the final chapter, Prof Lewis analyzes the idea of Man's conquest of Nature.

In order to understand fully what Man's power over Nature, and therefore the power of some men over other men, really means, we must picture the race extended in time from the date of its emergence to that of its extinction. Each generation exercises power over its successors: and each, in so far as it modifies the environment bequeathed to it and rebels against tradition, resists and limits the power of its predecessors.

This power over Nature, and thus of some men over other men, ultimately leads to to subjection:

The last men, far from being the heirs of power, will be of all men most subject to the dead hand of the great planners and conditioners and will themselves exercise least power upon the future. The real picture is that of one dominant age -- let us suppose the hundredth century A.D. -- which resists all previous ages most successfully and dominates all subsequent ages most irresistibly, and thus is the real master of the human species.

Lewis rightly asks, what or who will constrain the Conditioners? There is no historical precedent for benevolent rule outside of traditional morality. Thus apart from the Tao, Man does not conquer Nature, but ultimately becomes subject to the 'natural' impulses of the Conditioners.

Returning to first principles, he concludes with:

[Y]ou cannot go on 'explaining away' for ever; you will find that you have explained explanation itself away. You cannot go on 'seeing through' things for ever. The whole point of seeing through something is to see something through it. It is good that the window should be transparent, because the street or the garden beyond it is opaque. How if you see through the garden too? It is no use trying to 'see through' first principles. If you see through everything, then everything is transparent. But a wholly transparent world is an invisible world. To 'see through' all things is the same as not to see.

HarperOne, ISBN 0060652942
Also in The Complete C. S. Lewis Signature Classics. HarperOne, ISBN 0061208493

Defeating Darwinism by Opening Minds

The author of this book is Phillip E. Johnson, a law professor at the University of California, Berkeley, and well-known critic of Darwinism. Being a professional in the use of evidence, logic and rhetoric, he exposes many shortcomings of the theory of evolution and its philosophical foundation.

Three Common Mistakes
Prof. Johnson begins by describing three mistakes Christians commonly make when discussing evolution:

1. It's only about length of time - "Evolution" does not mean God-guided gradual creation, but unguided and purposeless change.
   
2. God made the laws and then retired - The important question is not whether God "exists", but whether God cares about us and we are responsive to his purposes.
   
3. Giving away the realm of reason - We must not allow the debate to be framed as faith vs. reason, or belief vs. knowledge, or the Bible and science. God has left evidence of His creation, and this evidence can be uncovered by reason, knowledge and science.

Moving to societal issues, Prof Johnson describes how the movie Inherit the Wind has left a lasting impression of creationists being ignorant, bigoted and irrational. Proponents of creation need to recognize that this is an uphill battle, but one where the truth will prevail.

Science and Philosophy
Much of this book is devoted to pointing out the philosophy behind the theory of evolution. First, the prevailing viewpoint of academic scientists is naturalism. Naturalism is the philosophy that the natural world is the only reality and that natural laws are basic truths of reality. Second, the scientific establishment is careful to main a separation of "religious" questions from scientific discussion. In this way, questions about God and ultimate reality are side-stepped. They are considered questions to be discussed by the liberal arts, not the sciences.

This is the point where Prof. Johnson's expertise helps unravel the difficulties though. The point is that scientists have already made a religious/philosophical assumption, that is, naturalism. The question of creation vs. evolution may be debated on either on philosophical grounds (theism vs. naturalism) or if naturalism is assumed, then it may be debated on the basis of the evidence (whether the facts support creation or purposeless evolution). But to close off both avenues of discussion is illogical and unscientific.

One other point here is that from a naturalistic point is view, evolution is not just the best explanation of the origin of life, it is the only explanation. Therefore all of the evidence must support evolution. Any contrary information s simply set aside as a temporary mystery, undoubtedly to be explained by future generations of naturalists.

Macro vs. Microevolution
Prof. Johnson points out that one rhetorical trick used by evolutionists is to leave the term "evolution" undefined and conveniently allow it mean different things at different times. He recommends that at a minimum the terms microevolution and macroevolution be used. Microevolution involves small changes within a species, such as the length of finch beaks in the Galapagos Islands. No one disputes that this can and does happen. However, the evolutionist will assert that these small changes plus time and random chance will lead to the emergence of a new and separate species. But it does not necessarily follow that microevolution plus time and random change will produce macroevolutionary changes, and the fossil record does not support this assertion.

Matter and Information
Another key idea presented in this book is the difference between matter and information. Prof Johnson uses the illustration of a book to describe the difference. A book is a certain amount of paper and ink, but the information in the book is the same even if it is contained in a computer, or some other medium. Applying this idea to life, DNA is just a physical medium containing genetic information. The big question is how did the information get organized in the DNA sequences contained in every cell. Evolutionary scientists have no real answer to this question.

In summary, this is a superb book for anyone interested in digging into the creation/evolution debate. It is targeted to high school age students and their parents, and at 119 pages (plus notes) it is not overwhelming.

InterVarsity Press, ISBN 0-8308-1360-8

Seven Men Who Rule the World From the Grave

Dave Breese is a Christian author and lecturer. His book, Seven Men Who Rule the World From the Grave, is an analysis of seven of the most influential thinkers in modern times. These men are:

1. Charles Darwin
2. Karl Marx
3. Julius Wellhausen
4. Sigmund Freud
5. John Dewey
6. John Maynard Keynes
7. Soren Kierkegaard

This book is important because it provides a background perspective of many ideas and philosophies commonly encountered today. Philosophical trends come and go, but God's truth remains the same. Being a Christian often means holding unpopular opinions and standing in the minority. By understanding the spirit of the age, the Christian can better understand and remain true to his own faith.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was a British naturalist who developed the idea natural selection as the motivating force behind evolutionary creation of new species. His most famous work is The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859). The diary of his five year voyage to South America and the Galapagos Islands is entitled The Voyage of the Beagle (1839).

Darwin's ideas are summarized as:

Those individuals whose distinctive capacities gave them a better chance of survival in the surrounding environment lived, and lived long enough to pass on their particular genetic makeup to the next generation. Over time these slight differences accumulated, with the result that eventually organisms emerged that no one would claim are the same species. Herbert Spencer later coined the phrase "survival of the fittest" to describe the effects of the action of natural selection.

This view has become the pervasive view of science. Dr. Breese notes several shortcomings of science for determining matters of ethics and origins though. These are:

1. Science cannot know the ultimate nature of things
2. Science cannot know the origin of things
3. Science cannot fathom past processes
4. Science cannot predict the future with certainty
5. Science cannot control all possible forces
6. Science cannot know the reason "Why?"
7. Science cannot say what ought to be

In summary, science is incapable of determining moral values. Modern science often begins with "There is no God", but it is not capable of making that determination itself. On the contrary, the Bible tells us that ultimate knowledge begins with God.

Karl Marx (1818-1883) is perhaps history's most prominent socialist. Dr. Breese summarizes his ideas as follows:

He fancied himself a discoverer of certain "laws" within the social structure that produce the inevitable advance of socialism. He called this set of laws the "socialist world revolution" and developed the idea that the destiny of the world was at stake in the implementation of those laws for all men and for all nations.

His most famous work is The Communist Manifesto (1847), which sets out these goals among many others:

1. Abolition of private property
2. A heavy progressive income tax
3. Abolition of the right of inheritance
4. Confiscation of property of emigrants and rebels
5. Centralization of credit in nationalized banks
   
6. Centralization of transportation and communication

In his view, the true conflict in society was between the bourgeoisie (ruling class) and the proletariat (working class). He also produced a major work on economics called Das Kapital (1867).

At its core, communism is atheist, materialist and determinist. Marx was heavily influenced by the dialectical scheme of George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. From Hegel, Marx developed the idea of dialectical materialism. That is, that the status quo constitutes the thesis. The next wave of history is the antithesis, which overwhelms the thesis, finally producing a synthesis. This synthesis eventually becomes the new thesis and the cycle repeats itself. The ultimate wave of history would usher in the Communist utopia, a worker's paradise on earth.

This ideology has taken hold in a large portion of the world, leaving over 60 million dead.

Julius Wellhausen (1844-1918) was a German scholar who specialized in textual criticism of the Bible. His view, known as the Documentary Hypothesis of the Pentateuch, was that four different men wrote the first five books of the Bible. Prior to this point, the Christian world viewed the Bible as divine revelation and that Moses was the sole, inspired author of the Pentateuch. However after Wellhausen's influence the Bible became commonly viewed as merely a collection of human documents.

Over time, men began to "demythologize" the Bible and many denominations began to practice an empty humanist Christianity. Religious liberalism engulfed Europe and many churches in the United States. Eventually however, the fundamentalist movement arose in the United States. The primary tenets of fundamentalism are:

1. The inerrancy of Scripture
2. The diety of Christ
3. The finished work of the cross
4. Salvation by grace alone
5. The premillennial return of Christ

Today, fundamentalism has largely been succeeded by conservative evangelicalism. Those denominations which strayed into liberalism have tended to remain there and gradually diminish in attendance and importance.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was an Austrian physician who revolutionized the field of human psychology. He pioneered new directions in the study of personality, the subconscious mind, neurosis and psychoanalytic therapy. In his early years he was widely criticized by his peers, but he persisted and eventually his views gained wide acceptance.

Freud's definition of the human personality has been extremely influential. It consists of three overlapping components:

1. Id - the collection of thoughts, ideas and contradictions buried in the personality.
   
2. Ego - the entity through which the id interacts with the outside world; the outside person.
   
3. Superego - something like the conscience, exercising a judgemental function over the content of the id and activities of the ego.
   

Interacting with the components are the Oedipus Complex, Libido, Life Instinct and Death Instinct.

Dr. Breese notes that Freud neglected the most important aspect of man, that he has been created in the image of God.

In contrast to the Freudian view, the Scripture teaches that man is a tripartite being consisting of body, soul and spirit. The body of man was created out of the dust of the ground, but the spirit of man is the entity in which is resident the very creative power of God.... the soul of man grows out of the interaction between body and spirit and is the sense in which man communicates to the outside world.

John Dewey (1859-1952) was a prominent American philosopher and educator.

[He] refashioned the educational system in America, moving it from the so-called static concepts of the past into a wholly new era in education. In the process, he redefined almost everything -- from the nature of truth to the responsibilities of the teacher and the capacity of the human personality. His influence became pervasive in America and had an effect as well on the way students in most other nations are educated.

Dewey, like Marx and Kierkegaard, was influenced by the philosophy of George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. As a result, Dewey viewed reality as developmental and changing rather than as fixed foundational truth.

Dewey's educational philosophy centered on experience rather than dogmatic propositions. Language and mathematics should no longer be the core of education. Rather, the production of social change should be the central purpose. Furthermore, since society was constantly changing, educational content and methodology must always be changing with it.

A summary John Dewey's ideas:

1. Final truth is illusory.
2. We must not think of truth but must concern ourselves with meaning. Meaning is the interaction of "the facts" with the current moment.
   
3. Truth is resident in experience.
4. Teaching fundamentally depends on experiment. There is no final truth and no final methodology.
   
5. The "idea of God" has meaning to those who believe. Religion, however, must be reformed to serve mankind.
   

John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) was a highly regarded British economist and intellectual. He pioneered a new system of economic thought which became known as Keynesian Economics.

Prior to Keynes, economists considered economic cycles of growth and recession were inevitable, but self-regulating. That is, during times of economic expansion, growth would be limited by the ability of businesses to produce without costly expansions to their buildings and equipment. On the other hand, recession would be limited by the availability of surplus investment capital, reflected in low interest rates.

Keynes' theories are summarized as:

1. An economy in depression could stay there, in a state of equilibrium with high unemployment.
2. Prosperity depends on ongoing business investment.
3. Capitalism could not be depended upon to provide ongoing business investment.

For Keynes, the answer to this dilemma is government investment. When the economy goes into a slump the government needs to jump-start the economy with an infusion of dependable expenditures, even if this involves increased taxation or deficit spending.

Problems with this approach are the following:

1. Increased taxation results in reduced profitability of businesses, reducing the incentive to invest and expand.
2. Increased tax rates often result in reduced tax revenue, due to businesses anticipating reduced profit and shifting investment to other opportunities.
   
3. Deficit spending obligates the government to make up the difference at some time in the future. If future tax revenues are insufficient to cover this debt, the temptation will be to debase the currency by printing money, resulting in inflation.
4. Deficit spending can also result in undesirable foreign control of national credit markets.

The major opposing view of economic theory is Monetarism.

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) was a Danish writer and is commonly regarded as the father of Existentialism. Dr. Breese notes that it is difficult to summarize Kierkegaard's ideas because he often advocated contradictory viewpoints.

One might touch on the essence of Kierkegaard (although this is a dangerous presumption) by suggesting that his reputation is built around a concept summed up in the title of one of his works, Truth is Subjectivity.

Kierkegaard's subjectivity did not find a wide audience until the 20th Century, long after his death. After World War II, Christian Liberalism was becoming disillusioned and slipping into irrelevance. Liberal theologians discovered Kierkegaard's subjectivity, leading to the creation of Neoorthodox Theology. Doctrinal truth was traded for subjective experience. Scripture was no longer the Word of God, but "contained" the Word of God. Consistent morality was discarded in favor of the existential view that there is no final truth.

Conclusion
This excerpt from the end of chapter 9 is a fitting summary of Seven Men Who Rule the World From the Grave.

Christianity must articulate its case in public presentation that is characterized by theological soundness and scholarly, philosophic interpretations of life and reality. Whatever other accomplishments the church has produced in our time -- and they have been many -- we have not succeeded in winning the battle for the minds of men.

Moody Press, 199o, ISBN 0-8024-8448-4

How Should We Then Live?

Dr. Francis Schaeffer was one of the great Christian philosopher/theologians of the 20th century. He and his wife, Edith, founded L'Abri Fellowship, a Christian community which has helped many people think more deeply about God and Christianity. His book How Should We Then Live? is an overview of Western culture and thought, including the development of Christianity. He traces the progression of Western thought from the Roman era to modern times, paying special attention to the underlying assumptions of influential thinkers throughout these times.

One important theme is what Dr. Schaeffer refers to as the Upper and Lower story (see below). He uses the idea of the two stories in a house to represent the realm of ideals and moral absolutes (upper story) and the realm the material universe and everyday experience (lower story). Dr. Schaeffer's contention is that philosophers have repeatedly attempted to derive knowledge of the upper story while only using imformation from the lower story, but that these attempts have all met with failure. In the modern era, this project has largely been abandoned resulting in reductionism, materialism and existentialism.

Dr. Schaeffer points out that that divine revelation has been given to man in the Bible , and that this information can give him upper story understanding, and thus make sense of the lower story experience. Thus man's effort to understand can succeed, but he must allow for external information to enter the picture. This isn't presented so much as an apologetic argument, but rather that it is true, and therefore makes sense of human history and experience.

Dr. Schaeffer also explains how new ideas progressively gain acceptance in culture. This progression begins with an individual who proposes a new and radically different view of the world. This view may be initially rejected, but gradually gains acceptance by other intellectuals. Over time artists, writers and musicians begin to adopt this viewpoint and express it in their work. And finally, perhaps generations later, the culture is influenced by this work and the ideas become the sensibility of a new era.

The Middle Ages
Dr. Schaeffer notes that the Middle Ages was largely dominated by the Christian church. The church during this period was sometimes devout. At other times it was isolated or corrupt. Despite its shortcomings, the Christian church of the Middle Ages did act as a preserver of the Judeo Christian Bible as well a the ancient Greek and Roman writings.

At the conclusion of the Middle Ages (about 1200 to 1400 A.D.) two major influences lead up to Renaissance. First is the work of Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), who revived the study of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) and brought about a new interest in the study of non-Christian philosophers. Second was the work of John Wycliffe (1320-1384) and John Huss (1369-1415) who emphasized the authority of the Bible as the Word of God and its supremacy over church and papal traditions. These influences led to the two major worldviews of the Renaissance: Renaissance humanism and the Christian Reformation.

The Renaissance
Moving next to the Renaissance, Dr. Schaeffer uses many examples from art, music and architecture to trace the development of humanistic thought during this time. One painting in particular, Raphael's The School of Athens, is used to demonstrate these trends. The painting has two central figures, Plato, who is pointing upward, and Aristotle, who has his outstretched fingers pointed horizontally.

Plato pointing upward represents the universal ideal, whereas Aristotle's outward pointed fingers represent the many particulars of the physical world. Many artists and thinkers of the Renaissance started from the particulars of the physical world and attempted to empirically derive universal ideas.

During the Middle Ages, God (as mediated through the church) was the center of all things. However during the Renaissance, man became the center of the world, working outward from his own rational thoughts and observations of the world. The roots of Christianity persisted, however this period was marked with attempts to unify humanistic and Christian thought. These attempts failed though because men were unable to begin with the physical, observable particulars and derive meaning or universal truth.

Upper and Lower Story
One of Dr. Schaeffer's recurring themes is the concept of higher and lower realms. (See also The God Who Is There.) In the current work he refers to them as grace/nature and higher/lower, and later the upper and lower story. Some of the contrasts between these concepts are:

1. God vs. Man
   
2. Creator vs. Creation
   
3. Heaven vs. Earth
4. Unseen vs. visible
5. Unity vs. diversity
6. Universals vs. particulars
7. Moral meaning vs. individual actions

The upper story represents the realm of ideals, perfection and eternity. The lower story represents day-to-day experience in the present and the physical, visible world. Dr. Schaeffer describes many of the historic philosophical attempts to derive truth about the upper story beginning solely from the particulars of the lower story. All of these attempts fail though, as demonstrated by the lack of consensus and continued search for a humanistic answer to this riddle. Dr. Schaeffer concludes that there is no humanistic answer to this question. On the contrary, the higher realm explains and gives meaning to the lower realm, but cannot be derived from it.

The major concepts of the Renaissance are:

1. Humanistic ideals
2. Man is the center of all things
   
3. Man is autonomous

The Reformation
Theologians of the Reformation turned to the Bible and original Christianity for truth. From the Bible they recovered the following concepts:

1. Because of the Fall, human reason is insufficient to answer the great questions confronting mankind.
2. Man needs God
3. Man needs revelation about God.
4. The Bible is the source of revelation.
5. The Church is under the authority of the Bible (Sola Scriptura)

This reliance on Biblical truth provided a framework to northern European society. This framework provided a great measure of personal freedom, yet without chaos. This framework also greatly influenced political thought of the time. The idea of checks and balances in government became more fully developed. The work of Samuel Rutherford (1600-1661, Lex, Rex) was very influential in England. He also influenced John Witherspoon (1723-1794) and others who helped create the U.S. Constitution.

Purpose and Meaning
The Bible also provides a unity to the problem of universals vs. particulars. Truth about God provides meaning, morals and value to life. Additionally, the Bible provides truth, but it does not do so exhaustively. That is, there is purpose in Man's work to discover the world that God has created.

The Enlightenment
Dr. Schaeffer summarizes the Enlightenment with five words: reason, nature, happiness, progress, liberty. Enlightenment philosophy was a thoroughly secular utopian dream. The "father of the Enlightenment" was the French philosopher Voltaire (1694-1778). Having observed the bloodless transition from absolute monarchy to shared power in England, he attempted to inspire the same transition in France. Thus, the French Revolution was based on a secular rather than Biblical foundation. The result was the bloodbath of the Reign of Terror, and finally dictatorship by Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821).

Humanism, devoid of absolutes, providing no basis for determining right and wrong, was left with only two options for society: anarchy or repression. France, and many other nations following this path, experienced both.

Modern Trends
In the remainder or the book, Dr. Schaeffer outlines the effect of these humanist trends in science, philosophy and religion. The non-Christian philosophers from the Greeks until the modern period had three things in common:

• Rationalism - man, though finite and limited, can begin from himself and gather enough information to derive universal truth.
• The validity of reason - they believed that things can be demonstrated as either true or false.
• Optimism - they believed they would be successful in their quest for truth.

However, in the modern era, shifts occurred in the areas of science, philosophy and religion. In science, the viewpoint shifted from the idea that God and man were outside of the world of cause and effect, to a system with no place for God and man is simply part of the materialistic universe.

In philosophy, four men directed the modern outlook away from optimism to a loss of hope.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) - Rousseau began to downplay reason and saw the restraints of civilization as evil. He viewed primitive man as innocent and autonomous freedom as the ultimate good. He though that society would be ordered on a social contract, which imposed freedom on the individual.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) - Though he tried, he was never able to tie the Upper and Lower worlds together.

George Wilhelm Hegel (1770-1831) - The universe and man's understanding slowly unfold. No single statement can represent truth. For every statement (Thesis) its opposite (Antithesis) also has some truth. A synthesis is gradually formed and replaces the original Thesis. And so on, forever.

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) - One must try to find optimistic answers to meaning and values on the upper story without using reason. One must find meaning through a leap of faith. To Kierkegaard, the lower story was the domain of reason and pessimism. The upper story was the domain of non-reason, faith and optimism.

Dr. Schaeffer summarized the philosophic outlook this way:

Humanistic man tried to make himself self-sufficient and demanded that one start from himself and the individual details and build his own universals. His great hope that he could begin from himself and produce a uniformity of knowledge led him, however, to the sad place where his mind told him that he was only a machine, a bundle of molecules.

These philosophical trends were gradually reflected in modern art, music and culture. Though we live in unprecedented affluence, these areas, though marked with genius and creativity, have grown steadily more pessimistic and degraded.

Finally, modern man's concern is mainly for peace and affluence. However without a Christian consensus in society, freedom tends to lead to chaos. The result, unfortunately, has often been totalitarianism, especially in the Communist states.
Dr. Schaeffer concludes his book this way:

[P]eople function on the basis of their world-view more consistently than even they themselves may realize. The problem is not outward things. The problem is having, and then acting upon, the right world-view -- the world-view which gives men and women the truth of what is.

Originally: Fleming H. Revell, 1979
Crossway Books, 2005, ISBN 978-1581345360

Welcome

Welcome to Worldview Bookshelf.

Those of us living in the modern/postmodern world have become accustomed to rapid change. New products, new ways of doing things and new ideas dominate our daily lives. Amidst all this change however, some ideas should be preserved. Some ideas, though seemingly outdated or even ancient, are ideas worth keeping.

Each person has ideas about what the world is and how it works. These ideas eventually form a framework in our mind which may be called a worldview. It is our worldview which gives us a sense of perspective and orientation in life. Our worldview is the framework within which new experiences are interpreted, opinions are formed and decisions are made.

This blog is about ideas and worldview. It contains my own observations on books and articles that I've found interesting and important. And while I hope that you find my own posts interesting, they are mostly meant to point to the writing of others, who do so professionally.

My own perspective on life is from a Christian worldview. Unless otherwise noted, the works cited here are consistent with that worldview.